NCSALL

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GED Instruction


Explore issues around program effectiveness, adult student persistence, classroom instruction and materials, or preparing students for the GED in specific contexts. Locate the articles that are most relevant for your particular context or interest

Program Effectiveness

Suggested Readings

Affecting Change in Literacy Practices of Adult Learners: Impact of Two Dimensions of Instruction. Victoria Purcell-Gates with Sophie Degener, Erik Jacobson, and Marta Soler, NCSALL Report #17, November 2000.
In this empirical study, the researchers investigate how the use of authentic materials and collaborative learning contribute to the use of increased and new literacy practices outside of the adult literacy classroom. The authors argue that this has implications for improving the emergent literacy of students’ children. In making this argument, they cite research that demonstrates the link between the frequency of literacy practices in the home and the types of texts read and written by parents, and the development of their children's reading skills.

Classroom Dynamics in Adult Literacy Education. Hal Beder and Patsy Medina, NCSALL Report #18, December 2001.
The authors investigate classroom behaviors and examine questions critical to understanding the reality of adult literacy instruction, including how instruction is delivered, the content being studied, the processes that underlie teaching and learning, and the external forces that shape these behaviors. In this qualitative study, using classroom observations and teacher interviews, in twenty adult education classes in eight states, the researchers use grounded theory methodology to generate an understanding of classroom dynamics and theoretical propositions for future research. The report describes the methodology, reviews relevant literature, and presents and discusses the findings. It includes in-depth discussions of the content and structure of instruction and an overview of how teachers prepare students for the GED exams, classroom processes, forces that shape classroom behaviors, and the conclusions and implications derived from the research.

The Outcomes and Impacts of Adult Literacy Education in the United States. Hal Beder, NCSALL Report #6, January 1999.
This study investigates outcomes and impacts of participation in adult literacy education through qualitative assessment of outcomes and impacts research conducted since the late 1960's. Outcomes are defined as changes in learners as a result of participation in adult literacy education and impacts are defined as changes that occurred in families and communities as a result of participation. Out of the 115 outcomes and impact studies, the author develops case studies for the 23 research studies determined. The conceptual, design, and methodological flaws of the studies are discussed and the implications for policy are presented. Findings from the studies reveal that students experience likely gains in employment and that participants believe their job opportunities improve over time despite insufficient evidence to verify this belief. Data indicates that participation likely results in learning gains and a positive influence on continued education. Although students in welfare-sponsored adult literacy education reduce welfare dependence, there is inconclusive evidence that participation reduced welfare dependence for adult students in general. Learners perceive an improvement in reading, writing, and math skills but, as measured by tests, evidence to support this is inconclusive. Students entering at the adult secondary education level gain skills to acquire GED credentials. Participation has a positive impact on learners' self-image and parents' involvement in children's education. Learners perceive that they achieved personal goals.

The Outcomes and Impacts of Adult Literacy Education in the United States, Appendix A: Abstracts of Studies Reviewed. Patsy Medina, NCSALL Report #6A, January 1999.
This report includes abstracts of the 23 studies found in NCSALL's The Outcomes and Impacts of Adult Literacy Education in the United States by Hal Beder. The abstracts describe the purpose, variables, population, design, data collection, instrumentation, findings, strengths, and weaknesses of each study.

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Adult Student Persistence

Suggested Readings

Persistence among Adult Basic Education Students in Pre-GED Classes. John P. Comings, Andrea Parrella, and Lisa Soricone, NCSALL Report #12, December 1999.
Because pre-GED students usually enroll in programs with goals that require lengthy time commitments, researchers in the first phase of NCSALL's Adult Student Persistence Study investigate factors that promote learner retention by reviewing existing research on learner persistence and motivation, interviewing 150 adult students in New England , and considering practitioner reports on efforts to support learner persistence. In the study, persistence is defined as adults staying in programs for as long as possible, engaging in self-directed study when it is necessary to leave their programs, and returning to programs when possible. The study identifies four primary measures of support—management of positive and negative forces that help or hinder persistence, self-efficacy for reaching goals, establishment of goals by the student, and support for progress toward reaching a goal. This report includes a literature review, a description of research methodology and findings, a discussion of the research findings, and samples of questionnaires used with learners. The report provides useful information for practitioners who would like to learn more about how to support learner persistence and for policymakers concerned with structuring funding and accountability requirements to support persistence. The study also challenges researchers to develop reliable tools for measuring persistence and to identify program and instructional factors that support retention. This comprehensive report includes samples of questionnaires used with learners.

"Retention and the GED." Jamie D. Barron Jones, Focus on Basics, Volume 2, Issue B, June 1998.
Despite efforts to make class comfortable for students, the author notes high levels of attrition in the GED class. Barron engages in action research to explore whether retention would be improved by using interviews and creative writing assignments to identify barriers to attendance and thus provide referrals to services addressing these barriers. The author notes significantly improved retention and increased skill levels.

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Instruction and Materials

Suggested Readings

"A Mingling of Minds: Collaboration and Modeling as Transformational Teaching Techniques." Carol Eades, Focus on Basics, Volume 5, Issue B, October 2001.
The author outlines the differences between informational and transformational teaching and describes how she teaches for transformation in a GED class by modeling and encouraging collaborative problem-solving. Eades argues that this approach, which develops social cooperation and individual and group responsibility for learning, shifts learners' perspectives about knowledge.

"Project-based Learning and the GED." Anson M. Green, Focus on Basics, Volume 2, Issue B, June 1998.
The author describes how the Project FORWARD life skills curriculum is used with a GED class to encourage student collaboration as participants work towards their academic and life goals. The author observes that project-based learning prepares students for the GED and helps learners develop a strong sense of personal responsibility, a solid self-image, and good interpersonal skills while learning relevant material.

"Articulating Learning with EFF Standards." Jane J. Meyer, Focus on Basics, Volume 3, Issue C, September 1999.
The author describes the roles, standards, and generative skills outlined in Equipped for the Future (EFF) and argues that learners are able to see progress towards goals when using these measures as the standards correspond to the use of skills in adult roles. Meyer states that students are able to document and measure progress in meaningful ways and are able to note progress even when they are not achieving their ultimate goal of a GED credential. The author outlines issues involved in implementing the EFF approach. She also describes a method for helping learners document skills for presentation to future employers.

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Corrections

Suggested Readings

"Time to Reframe Politics and Practices in Correctional Education." Stefan LoBuglio, The Annual Review of Adult Literacy and Learning, Volume 2, Chapter 4, 2001.
The author argues for the social benefits of correctional education programs and provides an overview of the politics and practices of these programs. The chapter describes the structure of corrections and its population, the literacy needs of offenders, and issues of concern in correctional education. The author also reviews existing research on adult education in correctional facilities and considers whether this reduces recidivism. LoBuglio describes some noteworthy correctional programs, argues for inmate accountability, and offers recommendations for policy, practice, and research.

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Language Arts

Suggested Readings

"Hooked on Learning: The Internet Poetry Project." Linda W. Parrish, Focus on Basics, Volume 1, Issue D, December 1997.
This practitioner researcher describes her process for using technology and content-based instruction to interest students in writing and reading. Her research results reveal that students become active learners when they develop an enthusiasm for reading and writing poetry and acquired skills required to pass the GED exam.

"Research in Writing: Implications for Adult Literacy Education." Marilyn K. Gillespie, The Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, Volume 2, Chapter 3, 2001.
The author reviews research on writers' processes, the writing process and alternative theories, a sociocontextual view of writing, the influence of New Literacy Studies on writing, composing in a second language, handwriting and spelling, studies of the social contextual nature of adult literacy education, writing research in practice, the impact of writing research on adult literacy education, what research reveals about the focus on mechanics in adult literacy, the importance of learning academic writing skills for post-secondary education, and writing skills for employment. Gillespie explores promising trends such as project-based instruction, writing in authentic contexts as outlined in Equipped for the Future, and technology-based communication.

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Learning Disabilities

Suggested Readings

"Adults with Learning Disabilities: A Review of the Literature." Mary Ann Corley and Julianna M. Taymans, The Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, Volume 3, Chapter 3, 2002.
The authors provide a definition of learning disabilities (LD) and review ninety-eight reports outlining what is known about adults with LD and how to serve them. The authors consider assessment issues and the benefits and drawbacks of diagnostic testing. Corley and Taymans argue that the development of self-determination skills is key for success, especially in the workforce, and that it is important that adult students with LD develop metacognitive skills. The authors list principles of effective instruction and explore the role of assistive technology.

"Lessons from Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children for Adult Learning and Literacy." Catherine E. Snow and John Strucker, The Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, Volume 1, Chapter 2, 2000.
The authors outline risk factors identified in children with reading difficulties and compare these characteristics to those of adult literacy students. They provide six case studies of adult learners in which component reading skills (word analysis/phonics, word recognition, spelling, oral reading, silent reading comprehension, and oral vocabulary skills) are tested to identify reading strengths and weaknesses. Adults, like children, require ample opportunities to learn and master alphabetic principles, to develop fluency, and to become enthusiastic readers. All instruction should engage students in meaningful reading activities. It should also address the social risk factors with which adult learners must contend.

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Mathematics

Suggested Readings

"Changing Approaches to Math.” Cynthia J. Zengler, Focus on Basics, Volume 2, Issue B, June 1998.
The author reflects on how she changed her instructional and assessment approaches to meet the changes in the GED exam. Zengler describes how she introduced the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics' (NCTM) four step, problem-solving model to encourage students to share strategies for solving math problems.

"Teaching to the Math Standards with Adult Learners." Esther D. Leonelli, Focus on Basics, Volume 3, Issue C, September 1999.
Leonelli advocates for standards-based teaching of mathematics and numeracy with less direct instruction and drill and more modeling of math behaviors through use of authentic and interesting applications. In this article, the author outlines the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) standards and frameworks that address the diversity of cultural backgrounds, learning styles, and abilities of ABE learners. Leonelli provides examples of concrete, hands-on activities that she uses with success in her math classes and considers some of the challenges teachers and students may face when confronted with the time constraints of preparing for the GED.

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Spanish GED

Suggested Readings

"The Spanish GED: The Door to Opportunity in Doña Ana County." Anastasia K. Cotton and Bertha Cantú-Lujá, Focus on Basics, Volume 2, Issue B, June 1998.
The authors describe the requirements of the Spanish version of the GED exam in New Mexico and how students prepare for it. The authors also explain why students choose to take the exam in Spanish.

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Youth

Suggested Readings

"Implementation Isn't Easy." Janet Geary, Focus on Basics, Volume 7, Issue A, 2004.
In this article, the director of a GED program with a large percentage of students under 25 years of age, describes her program's efforts to improve retention and the challenges encountered. Through group instruction, individual instruction, project-based learning, and a Youth Cultural Competence curriculum, the author observes how the program evolved into a learning community with improved retention.

"Separate Yet Happy." Barbara Garner, Focus on Basics, Volume 7, Issue A, June 2004.
This account describes how one community college-based GED program designs a separate class for learners ages 16-21 years. The class integrates activities based on Adult Multiple Intelligences theory with positive results.

"Youth in Adult Literacy Education Programs." Elisabeth Hayes, The Annual Review of Adult Literacy and Learning, Volume 1, Chapter 3, 2000.
The author argues that students, ages 16-17, raise unique issues and challenges for adult education programs. The author reviews adult literacy enrollment and dropout data and GED testing data to demonstrate the trend toward higher youth enrollments in adult literacy education and considers the educational and economic factors contributing to this trend. Hayes explores how programs are currently serving this population and examines whether they are successful in helping youth obtain GED credentials. The chapter concludes with policy and research recommendations.

"Youth in ABE: The Numbers." Jennifer Roloff Welch and Kathrynn Di Tommaso, Focus on Basics, Volume 7, Issue A, June 2004.
The authors examine the data that documents a slight rise in the percentage of youth in ABE programs and the related data that provides possible explanations. They determine that the average age for those taking the GED tests is younger and that 41% of GED candidates are youths (ages 16-24), while the other 59% of candidates are spread amongst ages 25-70. Since youth in GED programs present distinct issues and challenges, the authors argue that it will be important to standardize age ranges in reporting so that these trends can be accurately studied and the cause and effect can be investigated.

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